Introduction
Due to the close interaction among the
various organisms and the surrounding
environments, a network of natural systems
exists on the earth. This system is termed
as Ecosystem and the various ecosystems of
the world form a unified system known as the
Biosphere. The International Conference on
Human Environment held in Stockholm in 1977
stressed that the environment is to be
viewed as total environment which comprises
three types of environment viz. (i) Physical
Environment (abiotic and climatic state
variables such as air, soil and water), (ii)
Biological Environment (biotic state
variables i.e. plants, animals and micro
organism) and (iii) Socio-Cultural
Environment (cultural heritage, social and
ethnic customs, beliefs etc.). It is
noteworthy that each and every part of each
environment component is highly responsible
for the functioning and regulation of an
ecosystem. Any perturbation in the
components which are superimposed on one
another would result to the degradation of
the Ecological Balance (Homeostatis) of the
ecosystem. Degradations in the physical and
biological environments (popularly termed as
environment) in the various land and aquatic
habitats often cause serious ecological and
socio-economic turmoil.
Environmental Issues of Manipur
Various environmental degradations have
occurred in the state in the past two
decades that had caused much damage and
disturbances to the people and the habitats.
In the present paper some of the
environmental problems with long term
effects are highlighted briefly. The impacts
of the degradation of forest, wetland
systems as well as mismanagement of the
other environmental attributes are presented
herewith with the hope that the same may be
able to throw light towards planning the
ways and means to protect and rectify the
same at the earliest.
Forest Status: Its Impacts
The total area of the forests in Manipur has
been reported to be 15,154 sq. km.
constituting 67.7% of the geographical area.
According to the Forest Survey of India (FSI)
the area rose to a peak value of 17,679
sq.km. (79.2%) in 1990 but the area of total
forest decreased from 17,558 sq.km. in 1995
to 17,418 sq. km. by 1997. According to
these reports only an area of 4,937 sq. km.
that constitutes 22.11% of geographical area
represent the ‘dense’ or ‘true’ forest while
the remaining areas are designated as
‘scrub’ or grassland dominated areas which
in the true sense can hardly be regarded as
forests.
According to the reports of the National
Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) based on
satellite imagery, the area of dense (true)
forest decreased from 10,995 sq. km. (49.1%)
in 1988-89 to only 719.3 sq. km./ (3.2%) in
1990s. It cannot in the present context be
denied that almost all the forests in the
state have been degraded to a great extent
thereby reducing the forest areas to scrubs
(grasslands with a few poles of trees
scattered hither and thither).
According to the Forest Survey of India, the
various reasons for the fast removal of the
forests in the state are ‘burning’ of the
forest (99%) due to Shifting cultivation (Jhuming
practice) and hunting of animals whereas
felling of trees by the local people for
fuel wood hardly constitute 1% of forest
removal in the state.
The state is one of the regions having vast
areas of forests under shifting cultivation
in India as about 83,526 families are
reportedly practicing it. The total area
under jhum cultivation had been 1,832 sq.km.
in 1976 which gradually increased to 3,600
sq.km. in 1983 and 4,905 sq.km. by 1990
according to reports of FSI and NRSA. The
largest area cleaned for jhumming in the
state is found in Senapati district (28.3%)
which is successively followed by the areas
in Churachandpur, Ukhrul, Tamenglong and
Chandel districts (Table –I).
The serious environmental effects of forest
removal through burning are the occurrence
of a number of ecological catastrophes viz.,
flash floods, soil and land degradation,
loss of fertile top soil and health hazards.
Due to heavy burning of forest in almost all
the hills in the various districts by the
end of winter and onset of spring (February
to May) enormous liberation of smokes has
become a usual phenomenon. The direct
effects are the occurrences of respiratory
diseases like bronchitis, asthma and goiter
to the hill people especially the children
and youths. An immediate environmentally
safe cultivation practice like terrace
cultivation and modified jhum without the
burning phase may be implemented. Due to
reckless burning of the forests important
tree species like pine, teak phoebe sp.,
juglans sp., castanopsis sp., quercus.
Table 1: Present status of the Forest in
Manipur
Parameters (Source-For4est Department,
Manipur (1999)
1. Area of Forest in sq. km. (1997)
(i) Dense forest 4,937 (22.1%)
(ii) Open (scrub) forests 12,481 (55.9%)
(iii) Total forests 17,418 (78%)
2. Area of dense forest in sq. km. 719.3
(3.2%) NRSA (1990)
3. Forest area under Jhum cultivation in sq.
km. NRSA (1990)
Senapati District 1,388 (28%)
Churachandpur 1,232 (25.1%)
Ukhrul 718 (14.6%)
Tamenglong 675 (14.0%)
Chandel 655 (13.3%)
Imphal 168.8 (3.4%)
Thoubal 51.1 *1.0%)
Bishnupur 17.3 (0.3%)
Total 4,905.2
4. Annual Afforestation: Deforestation ratio
1:18.3 Sharma (1997)
5. Forest Loss Index of the state 0.04
Sharma (1997)
6. Annual Fuel wood production in cu. m
(1997) 29,078 Forest Department., Manipur
(1998)
7. Annual reduction in fuel wood production
in cu.m during 1990-1995 11,300
Sharma (1997)
Threatened plant species
Trees: Sharma(1997)
Phoebe hainesiana, juglans regia,
Rhus hookeri, Grewia elastica,
Flacourtia cataphracta, Butea frondosa,
Aphanomixis polystachys, Magnolia griffithii,.
Cycas pectinata, Podocarpus wallichii.
Orchids
Cymbidium giganteum, Arundina graminfolia,
Ascocentrum ampelleceum, Dendrobium
arachnites.
Dendrobium densiflorum,Dendrobium nobile,
Kalimpongea narajitii,Paphiopedilum insigne,
Paphiopedilum villosum,Spiranthes sp.,
Vanda coerulea
Aromatic and medical plants
Aquilaria agallocha,dioscorea deltoidea,
Rauwolffia serpentina.
species have depleted leading to the status
of threatened species. Besides, a number of
plants (over 65 species) comprising shrubs,
bamboos, canes, orchids, aromatic and
medical plants some of which are endemic
(strictly local) are threatened at different
levels (Sharma 1997)
Some other determinable consequences of the
heavy deforestation in the state need to be
emphasized. As the rate of afforestation is
much less as compared to
the deforestation rate, the annual
afforestation:deforestation ratio is found
to be 1:18:3 (Sharma 1997) and this ratio
far exceeds the ratios for India and the
world i.e. 1:14 and 1:10 respectively
(Newman 1990).When compared to the 'forest
loss indices' of the countries of the world
(Thomas et.al.1996), Manipur and other
states of the North-East have high forest
indices above 0.04 and hence these forest
are designated as areas of 'critical
concern' (Sharma 1997).Since 1986 where
70,264 cu.m of fuel wood was produced ,a
gradual decreasing trend in fuel wood
production has been noticed excepting some
rises in 1995-96. The fuel wood production
stands at 29,078 cu.m by 1997(Forest
Department, Manipur 1998)
In the light of facts already mentioned it
is high time to work out the remedial
measures to save the forest of the state and
protect the environment from further
deterioration .In this regard, environmental
awareness camps should be arranged so that
people should resort to the eco-friendly
alternatives to zoo cultivation. It is an
essential to mobilize the public mass to
take up afforestation programs in
association with concerned organizations and
the departments of the government.
Wetland Ecosystems
The 'Wetlands' are defined as very shallow
aquatic areas (less than 6 meters in depth)
which are subjected to a number of physico-chemical
stresses. The International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
has viewed the wetlands as shallow aquatic
bodies which are on the verge of extinction
unless immediate measures are taken up to
protect them (Ramsar Convention Bureau1997).
According to the environmentalists, the
wetlands has the capability of carrying out
specific vital functions like flood control,
water storage, ground water recharge,
sediment retention, nutrient accumulation
and the stabilization of the local climatic
conditions.
Most of the water bodies of Manipur like the
aged lakes and ponds are subjected to
numerous environmental threats like
artificial eutrophication and the
encroachments .It may be pointed out that
most of ours lakes have reached the status
of wetlands .There was reportedly about 500
lakes in the valley of the state by the
beginning of the 20th century. Hardly 55
lakes were found existing in the state by
1950s. Besides the Loktak Lake which is the
most important lake in the North East and a
Ramsar site, some lakes like Ikop, Waithou,
Nagkrapat and the Loushipat are found to be
the important lakes existing now in the
state. These lakes are much threatened due
to artificial eutrophication and the human
encroachments for cultivation and fish
farming .Highly degraded lakes in the state
are Kharungpat, Pumlen, Loukoipat, Utrapat,
Sanapat, Yaralpat and Poiroupat. Almost all
the lakes and ponds are subjected to a
number of environmental threats.
Some of the major causes for pollution of
water and the degradation of lakes are (i)
disposal of domestic garbage, (ii) leaching
of chemical fertilizers due to agricultural
and piscicultural activities, (iii)
encroachments for paddy cultivation, (iv)
draining of insecticides, pesticides and the
weedicides from the neighboring crop fields
due to rainfall and (v) misuse of the toxic
chemicals for catching fishes. The
morphometric analyses, physico-chemical
properties of water and ecological studies
of the macrophytes of Loktak Lake were
undertaken by Devi, N.B. (1993) and Devi,
K.I. (1998) respectively .The important
characteristics features of these lakes have
been summarized in Table2.
Some of the major environmental and
ecological changes that have taken place in
these life supporting lakes are highlighted
below:
(i) Loktak Lake
Situated in the Bishnupur District, the
Loktak Lake represents the largest
freshwater lake in the North East. The
Keibul Lamjao which is the only native home
of the endangered brow-antlered deer SANGAI
(Cervus eldieldi) represents a unique vast
expanse of floating mats (Phumdi) located
inside the lake. The unique up and down
movement of these floating mats in the
different seasons has now been disturbed due
to inundation of water caused by the Ithai
Barrage. The consequence is the disturbance
to the very existence, breeding and adaptive
natures of the Sangai and the other endemic
wild species. The existence of a number of
economic plants like Saccharam sp., Setaria
pumila, Alpinia nigra, Hedychium spicatum
etc has also been much disturbed .Though all
the possible steps have been taken up to
protect the Sangai and the other wild life
species in the Keibul Lamjao National Park,
illegal and intermittent killings have
threatened the existence of the precious
Table 2 : Morphometry and ecological
features of the important lakes in
Manipur
|
Parameters Utrapat Loktak Waithou |
|
Altitude (m)
|
783
|
768
|
785
|
|
Maximum Length (km)
|
0.74
|
20.5
|
1.04
|
|
Maximum Width (km)
|
0.65
|
8.8
|
0.94
|
|
Surface Area (sq. km)
|
0.37
|
180.4
|
0.99
|
|
Maximum Depth (m)
|
2.22
|
5.2
|
1.7
|
|
Minimum Depth (m)
|
0.7
|
0.9
|
0.7
|
|
Mean Depth (m)
|
1.4
|
3.0
|
1.2
|
|
Mean Depth/ Max. Depth Ratio
|
0.63
|
0.58
|
0.72
|
|
Shoreline (km)
|
2.47
|
55.8
|
3.49
|
|
Shoreline Development
|
1.15
|
1.17
|
0.95
|
|
Development of Volume
|
1.85
|
1.76
|
2.17
|
|
Basin Shape
|
Saucer
|
Saucer
|
Saucer
|
|
Basin Slope
|
Gentle
|
Gentle
|
Gentle
|
|
Bottom Texture
|
Silted
|
Silted
|
Silted
|
|
Average Annual Rainfall (m)
|
180.3
|
212.9
|
130.5
|
|
Average Maximum Temp.(Celcius)
|
30.5
|
31.2
|
33.1
|
|
Average Minimum Temp. (Celcius)
|
4.1
|
5.3
|
2.8
|
|
Mean Volume (cu.km)
|
0.00
|
0.55
|
0.001
|
|
Surface Area/Volume Ratio
|
703.8
|
328.0
|
826.6
|
|
Total Catchment Area (sq.km)
|
250.3
|
926.0
|
326.2
|
|
pH Value
|
6.0
- 9.3
|
7.4
- 8.3
|
6.2
- 9.8
|
|
Dissolved Carbon dioxide (ppm)
|
1.0
- 39.3
|
10.0
- 35.0
|
4.0
- 75.0
|
|
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
|
0.4
- 9.5
|
2.2
- 7.4
|
1.0
- 9.0
|
|
Plant Biomass (g/m. sq)
|
230
- 900
|
423
- 1306
|
138
- 581
|
|
Plant Production (g/m. sq/ yr)
|
181
- 1241
|
1350
- 1601
|
339
- 410
|
|
Trophic Status
|
Eutrophic
|
Eutrophic
|
Eutrophic
|
Environmental threats
Causes:
(i) human
encroachment
(ii) water inundation due to Ithai barrage.
(iii) misuse of pesticides.
(iv) poor water quality
(v) over accumulation of organic debris
(vi) poaching of wild life
(vii) water quality much deteriorated
Sangai and other animals including a number
of bird species. Altogether 138 species of
plants representing 88 genera are found
distributed in the phumdi and non-phumdi
(clear water) zones of the lake. The growth
and productivity of Trapa natans (Heikak) in
the lake has been much disturbed thereby
decreasing the production of the fruit which
is an important stable substitute for rice.
The production of the edible fruit and
rhizome (thamchet and thambou) of lotus (nelumbonucifera)
as well as edible underground rhizome of
Nymphaea stellata (lemphu) has also
decreased.
Due to a number of environmental
perturbations, the occurrence of the rare
wild rice Oryza rufipogon (wainu chara) and
the rare ornamental orchid Spiranthes
sinensis have been greatly disturbed. Due to
the disturbance of the breeding grounds of
the important fish varieties like Anabas
sp.Colisa fasciatus, Colisa
chuna,Punctiusticto and Esomus danricus, the
production of these species have been found
decreasing significantly. With the gradual
increase in the level of pollution of water
along with significant decrease in dissolved
oxygen contents the precious Channa
orientalis, Channa Punctatus and Channa
Striatus can no longer thrive and hence
these species are on the decline. A perusal
of the several physio-chemical and
ecological characters of the lake ( Table 2
) clearly indicate the enhanced
eutrophication (nutrient enrichment causing
pollution) going on inside the lake
environment that threatens the life and the
very existence of this precious lake.
The overall condition of the lake as well as
the socio-economic status of over 60,000
farmers and fishermen including those in
over 600 families in floating huts have
seriously been affected since the
construction of Ithai Barrage and
commissioning of the Loktak Hydro Electric
Project in 1983-84. On the average over
30,000 hectares of paddy field are usually
submerged annually due to inundated water.
The planners have still to realize the agony
of the people affected by the Ithai Barrage
and should resort to the variable ways and
means to solve the problems to the most
possible extent.
Besides the occurrence of water pollution
and euthrophication intermittently in the
various regions of the lake (now a Ramsar
site) since 1990, more serious degradation
in the water quality of the lake has
occurred since July, 2000. In the various
areas of the lake in Thanga, Moirang and
Sendra especially at Nongmaikhong, Manungpat,
Kharungpat, Lamyai, Phamlok, Ngakrapat, Ikop
and many other places, the water quality had
deteriorated to a great extent ( turning the
water to brownish-yellow color with pungent
smell, very low dissolved oxygen content
etc.). The people have suffered from a
number of skin diseases, fever and
respiratory troubles. This has also caused
the death of large populations of fish
species (especially Colisa species, Punctius
sp., Esomus sp.etc) as well as a number of
water fowl species. This may be attributed
to a number of factors such as (i) vast
accumulation of plant debris that starts
rotting and decomposition on the water
surface as well as on the bottom sediment.
This is mainly caused by leaving the excised
parts of Euryale ferox, Trapa, Hydrilla,
Ceratophyllum etc. after harvesting on the
water surface., (ii) Use of insecticides in
the water for catching fishes, (iii) Use of
excessive amounts of fertilizers, pesticides
and other chemicals in the paddy fields in
and around the water bodies, (iv)
Non-removal of the thick mats of weeds,
Lemnna, Salvinia etc. Monitoring of water
quality by all concerned (government as well
as public organizations) and taking up
immediate steps and means to rectify the
same by the concerned authorities is called
for before serious catastrophes arise.
Removal of the organic debris that floats on
the water surface as well as those
accumulated at the bottom of the lake is to
be carried out as an immediate measure.
Revitalization of water through manual as
well as mechanical means would also be much
helpful.
(ii) Waithou Lake
This oval shaped lake is situated at Waithou
at a distance of 17 km due south of Imphal.
The morphometric as well as ecological
survey indicate the advanced eutrophication
going on in the lake. Encroachments for
cultivation and fish farming are the potent
factors for the degradation of the lake.
Only 35 macrophytic plant species are found
distributed in the different seasons of the
year. Production of the economic plants like
Trapa, Euryale ferox, Nelumbo, Nymphea
species have gone down to a great extent.
Physico-chemical analysis of the lake water
also revealed much deterioration in the
water quality. The lake had been the
favorable habitat of the delicious fish
Labeo bata (Ngaton). With the deterioration
of the lake following the construction of
the Chekshabi Barrage and ring bund in
1970s, the fish species has completely
vanished from the lake.
(iii) Utrapat Lake
This lake located at Nambol due 20 km south
of Imphal is in the advanced stage of
eutrophication. The existence of the lake is
very much threatened due to human
encroachments and interferences. At present
only about 26 macrophytic plant species are
found distributed in the different seasons
of the year. The water quality has been
found much degraded as revealed by the
physico-chemical analyses. This is much
responsible for the significant decrease in
the production of the economic plants like
Trapa, Nymphoides, Nymphea, Nelumbo species
etc.
The Sanapat located at Nambol is a small
lake having 1.97 sq.km. in area and it
supports only about 32 plant species. The
production of the economic plants has been
found much decreased. The water quality,
habitat as well as the morphological
characters of the lake has been degraded due
to human encroachments through cultivation
and pisciculture. The Ikop Lake having an
area of 6.2 sq.km. is situated in Thoubal at
a distance of about 40km due south east of
Imphal. The lake has been threatened due to
artificial eutrophication through human
encroachment and has exhibited the
occurrence of only 26 macrophytic plant
species. As water quality is much degraded
the production of the dying lakes
likeYaralpat, Poiroupat, Kharungpat, Pumlen
and Khoidumpat.
It is worthwhile to mention herewith that
unless the environmental and conservational
measures are taken up immediately, the
degradations in the lakes mentioned above
may progress rapidly which would ultimately
lead to the death of these lakes.
Other Environmental Strategies
Some of the environmental mismanagements,
which require appropriate rectification, are
mentioned briefly as follows.
1. The smokes from the burning of oil in
many brickfields on Manipur are directly
liberated into the atmosphere without any
form of treatment. This has caused damages
to the crops, vegetables and has
contaminated the water in ponds and lakes.
Respiratory problems have been caused to the
young kids in the vicinity of these areas.
Appropriate treatment devices such as use of
electrostatic precipitators may be
suggested.
2. There are huge liberations of carbon
shoots and smokes through the burning of
kerosene in lamps with large wicks (podon in
Manipuri). This has been a usual daily
practice in hundreds of women markets in the
capital, as well as numerous villages in the
state. Electrification in such markets would
be highly necessary.
3. Misuses and over-rushes of chemicals like
Thionel-Endosulphan, Pestoban, Rogo-300 and
similar poisonous chemicals have been used
in the fields as well as in the ponds lakes
and streams as a means of catching fish
without strings. Such malpractice causes
dreaded diseases like UDS in the fishes. We
may recall the serious outbreak of this
epidemic in fishes throughout the state in
1992 that took the lives of few peoples
rendering hundreds of people hospitalized.
4. Stray disposal of wastes such as organic
debris from vegetable market, domestic
kitchen and pilling them up in the market
and road corners has been the most regular
routine practice in the whole state. After
leveling this, raw waste temporary huts are
constructed and people have started
inhabiting in such areas. It is highly
undesirable as methane and carbon monoxide
gases (which are lethal) may accumulate and
disrupt after the lapse of many years. We
may recall the instant that of five tribal
brothers in Churachandpur in 1999 due to the
liberation of carbon monoxide in an earthen
well. The immediate suggestion is to throw
this garbage in a garbage pit, which after
filling up may be subjected to combusting or
burning of garbage after separating the
plastic, polythene and PVC waste.
5. The population pressure indices of Imphal
(15.55), Thoubal (14.12) and Bishnpur (9.80)
are comparatively higher than those in other
districts (0.52 to 2.08) and this indices in
the three districts of the state are found
even higher than those in the tropical
countries like Rwanda, El Salvador, Lebanon,
Haiti, Burundi, Taiwan and India where the
population pressure indices ranges from
5.372 to 9.94 (Sharma, 1998). This has
exerted an immense pressure on natural
systems specially the forest resources and
their products. The annual fuel wood
production has been found decreasing
significantly during the last decade. The
per capita availability of fuel wood has
decreased significantly from 0.03 to 0.013
cu m by 1997. Immediate attention is
essential to take further removal of our
forest has first plantation of trees on a
massive scale through the effort of the
concerned department and the public.
Conclusion
In the light of the discussions made it is
high time to realize the impacts of the
degradations in the land and aquatic
environments. It is essential that people
especially in the stress prone areas and
environmentally affected regions be made
aware of the causes, effects and preventive
measures through environmental awareness
camps, workshops, seminars etc. Success may
be achieved through the sincere and tireless
efforts of the public mass with full
co-operation of the Government.
*** The author is an Associate Professor
in Ecology, Department of Life Sciences,
Manipur University, Imphal and is a Fellow,
Tropical Ecology and Fellow, Indian Society
of Environment. |
